Part 7 – Conclusion - Implications and alternative approaches to the delivery of reflective thinking

Relevance, congruence and application in real life situations are key considerations in reflective thinking processes. These should be aligned with adult cognitive styles and strengths and ‘linked effectively with past experience, present career and life situations and perceived future needs’ (Pourchot and Smith, 2004, pp. 75-76). Another illuminating idea from life-span psychologists that can be applied more consistently in reflective thinking is to engage the learners beginning with current skills, interests, knowledge, and addressing the current and future ambitions of the learner (ibid.). Since Pourchot and Smith (2004) argue that adult cognition is more domain specific, the learner’s real life experiences can be used (in connection with theory) in presenting examples, metaphors, broad concepts and problems and questions, with regards to enabling the process of reflective thinking. In facilitating adults to higher plains of maturity and development, reflective thinking can stimulate and challenge them as they exercise judgement, creativity and wisdom, and apply multi-dimensional cognitive and thinking abilities in the process (ibid.).

In light of Merriam and Clark’s ideas (2006), since adult learning takes place in a vast range of social contexts, as a precursor to the reflective process, the learning environment and learning activities need to be as authentic as possible as given in social practice. Consequently, reflection can take place as the situation occurs (‘reflection-in-action’ or after the occurrence ‘reflection ‘on-action’) (Merriam and Clark, 2006, p. 47). In addition, an adult’s thinking can expand beyond their own personal experiences to include socio-cultural contexts. The value of reflective thinking here is the creation of space ‘where the self can be defined or restructured’ (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p. 109). The factors that shape learning and development have been discussed at length. The theories reveal that reflective thinking gives rise to deep learning which leads to personal change and hence development through different contextual facets. Adult development is a life-long process in a dynamic ever-changing world. In comparing and contrasting two key theories of development, this blog series has tied together some of the concepts behind adult learning, growth, development and identified alternative means to advance the practice of reflective thinking as a powerful process of change, transformation and development for both practitioners as well as students.

All References

Baltes, P.B. 1987, ‘Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology: on the dynamics between growth and decline’, Developmental Psychology, American Psychological Association, Inc. Vol. 2.1, No. 5, pp. 611-626.

Baumgartner, L.M. 2001, ‘Four adult development theories and their implications for practice’, National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy, Vol. 5, Issue B.

Bonk, C.J. & Kim, K.A. 1998, ‘Extending sociocultural theory to adult learning’ in M.C. Smith & T.L. Pourchot (eds), Adult learning and development : perspectives from educational psychology, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, pp.67-88.

Brookfield, S. D. 1987, Developing critical thinkers, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.

Brookfield, S. D. 1991, ‘The development of critical reflection in adulthood’, New Education, Vol. 13 No. 1, pp. 39-48.

Rodgers, C. 2002, ‘Defining reflection: another look at John Dewey and reflective thinking’, Teachers College Record, Vol. 104, No. 4, pp. 842-866.

Merriam, S.B. & Caffarella, R.S. 1999, Learning in adulthood: a comprehensive guide, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.

Merriam, S. B. & Clark, M.C. 2006, ‘Learning and development: the connection in adulthood’, in H. Carol (ed), Handbook of adult development and learning, Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York, pp. 27-51.

Mezirow, J. 1991, Transformative dimensions of adult learning, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.

Pourchot, T.L. & Smith, M.C. 2004, ‘Some implications of life span developmental psychology for adult education and learning’, PAACE Journal of lifelong learning, Vol. 13, pp. 69-82.

Smith, M.C. & Pourchot, T.L. 1998, ‘Toward an adult educational psychology’ in M.C. Smith & T.L. Pourchot (eds), Adult learning and development: perspectives from educational psychology, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, pp.259-266.

Part 6 - Development is influenced by context

Developmental contexts can take into account moral, emotional, social, personal and somatic factors and draw on issues of demographics like ethnicity, race, sexuality and class as contexts of development (Baumgartner 2001, Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, Merriam & Clark, 2006). Merriam and Caffarella (1999) also embrace the contexts of global economy and technology. All these are important contextual references because people are placed in relation to each other, and these positions are affected by the environment that surrounds, defines and influences development. These extrinsic factors in turn, influence how a person constructs his or her own thoughts, beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviours. Therefore, it can be said that adult development and learning are driven by an integration of extrinsic and intrinsic factors (Baumgartner & Merriam, 2000). This again, is another critical component of reflection, which often constructs meanings, values, ideas and solutions from intrinsic and extrinsic sources.

In contrast, Pourchot and Smith (2004) consider the concept of context from two other perspectives. Firstly, that the contextual paradigms of focus in which development occurs are age-graded, history-graded and [1]non-normative experiences (Baltes, 1987; Pourchot & Smith, 2004). Secondly, that adult thinking, learning and development is best served when it involves real life experiences within the contexts of work, social, culture and interpersonal relationships (Pourchot & Smith, 2004). This point also differentiates the developmental stages and needs between adults and younger learners, a point which, Merriam and Clark being adult educational practitioners, understandably, have acknowledged but chosen to focus less about (Merriam & Clark, 2006).

In principle, the authors agree that developmental psychology inter-relates with learning and education and that they are connected to the broader contexts of situation, society, politics, culture and history including community, legal, governmental), formally or informally (Merriam & Clark, 2006; Merriam & Caffarella, 1999; Pourchot & Smith, 1998). Whilst they all state that development is influenced by context, their emphasis and foci of context are different albeit useful for reflection and the contexts adult learners are coming from.

References

Baltes, P.B. 1987, ‘Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology: on the dynamics between growth and decline’, Developmental Psychology, American Psychological Association, Inc. Vol. 2.1, No. 5, pp. 611-626.

Bonk, C.J. & Kim, K.A. 1998, ‘Extending sociocultural theory to adult learning’ in M.C. Smith & T.L. Pourchot (eds), Adult learning and development : perspectives from educational psychology, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, pp.67-88.

Merriam, S.B. & Caffarella, R.S. 1999, Learning in adulthood: a comprehensive guide, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.

Merriam, S. B. & Clark, M.C. 2006, ‘Learning and development: the connection in adulthood’, in H. Carol (ed), Handbook of adult development and learning, Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York, pp. 27-51.

Pourchot, T.L. & Smith, M.C. 2004, ‘Some implications of life span developmental psychology for adult education and learning’, PAACE Journal of lifelong learning, Vol. 13, pp. 69-82.

Smith, M.C. & Pourchot, T.L. 1998, ‘Toward an adult educational psychology’ in M.C. Smith & T.L. Pourchot (eds), Adult learning and development: perspectives from educational psychology, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, pp.259-266.

---

[1] Unanticipated life events include for example infertility, accidents, illnesses.

Part 5 - Cognitive development and higher levels of consciousness

Cognitive development features as a necessary component for change in both theories. This involves changes in thinking patterns (including knowledge, attitudes and beliefs) that occur in conjunction with learning (Merriam & Clark, 2006; Pourchot & Smith, 2004). Lifespan psychologists differentiate the notion by adding that cognitive abilities in adulthood are qualitatively different and often unique compared to childhood development (Pourchot & Smith, 1998, Pourchot & Smith, 2004). They posit that developed adults are more capable of higher order thinking and tend to excel further in ‘interpersonal relationships, practical judgement, creative endeavours and wisdom’ (Pourchot & Smith, 2004. The themes of sophisticated adult cognitive thinking style are well suited to the process of critical or reflective thinking, as upheld by Brookfield and Mezirow (Pourchot & Smith, 2004, p. 77). Pourchot and Smith (2004, p. 73) also suggest that adult cognition tends to be ‘highly contextual and domain specific’. Since adults have highly adaptive abilities and can function effectively through using their experience and expertise in particular fields, adults can be invited to share their experiences and expertise with the group in addition to self-reflection processes (ibid.).

The idea of adult thought development is supported, but described differently by Merriam and Clark as change towards “higher more mature, more integrated levels of functioning” (Merriam & Clark, 2006, p. 29). Merriam and Clark (2006) also add that learning is dynamic, multi-layered, multi-faceted, interconnected in time, space, society and relationships. In addition, they incorporate adult learning theories of situated cognition which attempts to encapsulate the full social context in its learning environment. Here, the interaction of the learner, tools, the learning activities and the context are crucial (ibid.). This multi-dimensional focus of learning and adaptability is necessary in keeping up with a world of constant change, and hence adults need to cognitively develop higher levels of consciousness throughout their lives (ibid.). The idea that development comes from a wide range of contexts are further discussed in the next blog (Part 6).

References

Merriam, S. B. & Clark, M.C. 2006, ‘Learning and development: the connection in adulthood’, in H. Carol (ed), Handbook of adult development and learning, Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York, pp. 27-51.

Pourchot, T.L. & Smith, M.C. 2004, ‘Some implications of life span developmental psychology for adult education and learning’, PAACE Journal of lifelong learning, Vol. 13, pp. 69-82.

Smith, M.C. & Pourchot, T.L. 1998, ‘Toward an adult educational psychology’ in M.C. Smith & T.L. Pourchot (eds), Adult learning and development: perspectives from educational psychology, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, pp.259-266.

Part 4 - Adult development is entrenched in life experiences

Both theories agree that a core component of adult development involves life experiences (Merriam & Clark, 2006, Pourchot & Smith, 2004). For Merriam and Clark (2006), every day to day life experience is an opportunity to be a learning experience especially when the individual attends to the life event, in order to make sense of experiences and to adjust, expand and change as result (ibid.). These constructs form and change with time and society, and are considered significant transformational progressions contributing to development and growth (ibid.). On the other hand, Pourchot and Smith (2004) tend to focus on formal learning design in the use of real life experiences in. For the latter, it appears that experiences are the subjects or textbooks of learning and development (Pourchot & Smith, 2004). They suggest that often, formal assessments of adult learning are not within the context of real-life and hence, are less effective (including reflection exercises) (ibid.). They suggest that these evaluative methods need to be refined in consideration that adults perform better in real life situations (ibid.). In contrast, Merriam and Clark (2006) tend to view life as the classroom and hence reflection is viewed as fundamental to learning. Whether in the formal classroom or in everyday life, the concept of development and learning is strongly linked to real life experiences, transformation and new ways of thinking.

References

Merriam, S. B. & Clark, M.C. 2006, ‘Learning and development: the connection in adulthood’, in H. Carol (ed), Handbook of adult development and learning, Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York, pp. 27-51.

Pourchot, T.L. & Smith, M.C. 2004, ‘Some implications of life span developmental psychology for adult education and learning’, PAACE Journal of lifelong learning, Vol. 13, pp. 69-82.

Part 3 - Development as a life-long, continuous multi-directional process

Adult development is viewed in both theories as a continuous life-long process, comprise gains and losses and that it involves some type of change (Merriam & Clark 2006, Pourchot & Smith, 2004). However, the mechanisms of change are seen quite differently.

According to life span psychologists (Baltes, 1987; Pourchot & Smith, 2004), intellectual changes relating to a person’s aging process are inevitable. Cattell and Horn’s work (ibid.) on psychometric intelligence mentions that intellectual function changes with age [plasticity]. Certain fluid intelligence abilities like memory, analysis and processing speeds can decline (ibid.). However these decreases can be compensated by increases in pragmatic or crystallised intelligences like experiential knowledge, expert skills, communication and social skills and judgement (ibid.). In addition, well-developed cognitive skills or high level expertise can compensate for these biologically-based decreases of intellectual function (ibid.). In fact, in certain domains, fluid intelligence may even be maintained (Pourchot & Smith, 2004). Given these ideas, reflective thinking can be said to support the intellectual continuity of an adult by stimulating renewed development to advance a person to higher levels of sophisticated thought processes. Creativity and wisdom are two aspects that appear to be a function of mature adult thinkers (ibid.). In contrast, Merriam and Clark point out other biological changes, for example, changes in the central nervous system, reduced abilities in sight and hearing can also affect an adult’s ability to develop as do environmental influences, health habits and diseases (Merriam & Clark, 2006, p. 29; Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p. 90). Merriam and Clark (2006) add that there are also social role perspectives whereby transitions and life events are integrally related to learning. In this context, reflecting and giving new meanings to the various events and life transitions are useful especially for older adults, and can exorcise their fears of ‘losing’ their minds, and empower them in facing the rigours of daily life. In the process, one can learn to undo social clichés like ‘you can’t teach an old dog new tricks’ and appreciate that intelligence and development inevitably change but are not all negative.

References

Baltes, P.B. 1987, ‘Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology: on the dynamics between growth and decline’, Developmental Psychology, American Psychological Association, Inc. Vol. 2.1, No. 5, pp. 611-626.

Merriam, S.B. & Caffarella, R.S. 1999, Learning in adulthood: a comprehensive guide, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.

Merriam, S. B. & Clark, M.C. 2006, ‘Learning and development: the connection in adulthood’, in H. Carol (ed), Handbook of adult development and learning, Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York, pp. 27-51.

Pourchot, T.L. & Smith, M.C. 2004, ‘Some implications of life span developmental psychology for adult education and learning’, PAACE Journal of lifelong learning, Vol. 13, pp. 69-82.